Life Time Fitness : Resource List - Nutrition

Vitamin E

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Mon, 02 Nov 2009 14:23:44 GMT

Vitamin E is actually not a single substance. It includes 8 fat-soluble vitamins that are active throughout the body. Some of the vitamins considered tocopherols; while the others are considered tocotrienols. Alpha-tocopherol is the only form of vitamin E that is actively maintained in the human body; therefore, it is the form found in the larges quantities in blood and tissues (1).

What is the function of Vitamin E?

Prevents Oxidative Stress (aka anti-oxidation)

The principle function of vitamin E is that of an antioxidant. Free radicals are formed in the body during normal metabolism and when we are exposed to environmental stressors, such as smoke and pollutants. Fats are especially vulnerable to destruction by free radicals. Prevention of damage from free radicals depends on a complex protective system of which vitamin E plays and essential role. Other nutrients involved include: vitamin C, glutathione, selenium, and vitamin B3. Some researchers believe vitamin E is the most important member of this oxidative stress-preventing group.

Heart Disease. Clinical trials with vitamin E along and with other antioxidants suggest that vitamin E may decrease LDL-cholesterol oxidation (2,3,4). In fact, evidence of high intakes of vitamin E was shown to be associated with a lower risk of coronary heart disease in both men and women (5,6). Research also found that supplementation with 800 IU alpha-tocopherol (Vitamin E) reduced the rate of nonfatal heart attacks in a group of patients with symptomatic heart disease after 1 year of treatment (7). These findings have implication in preventing atherosclerosis, which is an accumulation of fatty materials in the artery.
Cataracts. Vitamin E has been suggested for the treatment or prevention of cataracts (8,9). Cataracts results in part from oxidative damage to proteins that aggregate and precipitate in the lens of the eye, which causes cloudiness.

Protects Against Cancer

Bladder Cancer. According to research presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Cancer Research (Orlando, FL, May 23, 2004), eating foods rich in vitamin E, such as nuts, seeds, spinach, mustard greens, peppers, and olive oil can decrease one’s risk of developing bladder cancer by up to 50%. Bladder cancer kills 12,500 Americans annually, and is the fourth leading cancer killer among men. Whether intake was from foods or supplements, the reduction in risk was roughly the same.
Prostate Cancer. Research shows that vitamin E could inhibit the development of prostate cancer. According to the researches from the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vitamin Es suppressed the production of a receptor for testosterone, which is the marker of this cancer’s development (10). By lowering the number of testosterone receptors in a prostate cancer cell, the genes that stimulate cancer growth are less likely to be activated. However, the form of vitamin E is essential. It is suggested that gamma-tocopherol, but not alpha-tocopherol, inhibits prostate cancer proliferation, without affecting healthy prostate cells. In another study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that it can be dangerous to take high doses of vitamin E in the form of alpha-tocopherol without consuming gamma tocopherol. Gamma-tocopherol plays a critical role in the defense against cancer (and cardiovascular disease) by decreasing inflammation (11).

Protects Against Alzheimer’s Disease

A high intake of vitamin E from food, but not from supplements, was shown to decrease the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. According to the Chicago Healthy and Aging Project, participants with the highest intakes of vitamin E from food (contains other tocopherol forms besides alpha-tocopherol) had a 67% lower risk of Alzheimer’s (12).

Deficiency Symptoms

A deficiency of vitamin E in humans is rare. Usually the population groups exhibiting deficiency symptoms include premature, low-birth weight infants and people with malabsorption syndromes. Some of the common symptoms of vitamin E deficiency include retinal degeneration, hemolytic anemia, muscle weakness, incoordination of limbs, and peripheral neuropathy (pain tingling, and loss of sensation in arms, hands, legs, and/or fee)

Nutrient Interactions

As mentioned above, the recycling of vitamin E in the body is connected to four other nutrients: vitamin C, glutathione, selenium, and vitamin B3. Thus, vitamin E is heavily dependent on these substances. On the other hand, moderately high levels of 1,000 mg or more of vitamin E can interfere with the function of vitamin K.

Food Sources

According to the World’s Healthiest Foods…

Excellent sources of vitamin E include:

1) Mustard greens
2) Turnip greens
3) Chard
4) Sunflower seeds

Very good sources include:
1) Almonds
2) Spinach

Good sources include:
1) Collard greens
2) Parsley
3) Kale
4) Papaya
5) Olives
6) Bell peppers
7) Brussels sprouts
8) Kiwi
9) Tomato
10) Blueberries
11) Broccoli

How much?

The Recommend Daily Allowance (RDA) is 15 mg/day (22 IU) for adult men and women. However, literature provides strong evidence that vitamin E intakes much For example, the amount of vitamin E needed to protect polyunsaturated fats against oxidative damage is at least 135-150 Ius (13, 14). Additionally, Vitamin E intakes of at least 200 IU/day enhanced immune responses (15) and intakes of 100-400 IU/day decreased platelet adhesion to the arterial wall. Scientist at the Linus Pualing Institute feel there is credible evidence that support taking a supplement of 200 IU (134 mg) of natural sources d-alpha-tocopherol (RRR-alpha-tocopherol) daily with a meal may help protect adults from chronic diseases, such as heart disease, stroke, neurodegenerative diseases, and some types of cancer (17). The amount of alpha-tocopherol required for such beneficial effects appears to be much greater than that which could be achieved through diet alone. Life Time Fitness’s Men’s and Women’s Performance Multivitamins provide 200 IU in the AM formula and 200 IU in the PM formula.

References

1) Traber MG. Utilization of vitamin E. Biofactors. 1999;10(2-3):115-120
2) Nike E, Noguchi N, Tsuchihashi H, Gotoh N. Interaction among vitamin C, vitamin E, and B-carotene. Am J Clin Nutr, 1995; 62(suppl):1233S-26S.
3) Jialal I, Grundy S. Effect of dietary supplementation with alpha tocopherol on the oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein. J Lipid Res, 1992;33:899-906.
4) Esterbauer H, Dierber-Rotheneder M, Striegl G, Waeg G. Role of vitamin E in preventing the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein. Am J Clin Nutr, 1991;53:314S-21S.
5) Stampfer M, Hennekens C, Manson J, Colditz Gm Rosner Bm Willett W. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women. N Eng J Med; 1993;328:1444-9.
6) Rimm E, Stampfer M, Asherio A, Giovannucci E, Colditz G, Willett W. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N Eng J Med, 1993;328:1450-6.
7) Stephens N, Parsons A, Schofield P, Kelly F, Cheeseman K, Mitchinson M, Brown M. Randomized controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study (CHAOS). Lancet 1996;347:781-6.
8) Varma S. Scientific basis for medical therapy of cataracts by antioxidants. A, J Clin Nutr, 1991; 53:335S-45S.
9) Robertson J, Donner A, Trevithick J. A possible role for vitamin S and vitamin E in cataract prevention. Am J Clin Nutr 1995:62suppl):1337S-46S.
10) Jiang Q, Wong J, Fyrst H, Saba JD, Ames BN. gamma-Tocopherol or combinations of vitamin E forms induce cell death in human prostate cancer cells by interrupting sphingolipid synthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Dec 21;101(51):17825-30. 2004. PMID:15596715
11) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. April 1997;94;3217-3222.
12) Morris MC, Evans DA, Tangney CC, Bienias JL, Wilson RS, Aggarwal NT, Scherr PA. Relation of the tocoperol forms to incident Alzheimer disease and to cognitive change. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005 Feb;81(2):508-14. 2005. PMID:15699242.
13) Haegele AD, Briggs SP, & Thompson HJ. Antioxidant status and dietary lipid unsaturation modulate oxidation DNA damage. Free Rad Biol Med, 1994;16:111-115.
14) Summerfield FW & Tappel AL. Effects of dietary polyunsaturated fasts and vitamin E on aging and peroxidative damage to DNA. Arch Biochem Biophys, 1984; 233:408-416.
15) Meydani SN, Meydani M, Blumberg JB, Leka LS, Siber G, Loszewski R, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and in vivo immune response in healthy elderly subjects. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1997;277:1380-6. [PMID: 9134944]
16) Pyror W. Vitamin E and heart disease: Basic science to clinical intervention trials. Free Rad Biol Med, 2000;28:141-164.
17) Linus Pauling Institute: Micronutrient Research for Optimal Health. Oregan State University. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminE/

Vitamin D

aseminara@lifetimefitness.com — Sun, 18 Oct 2009 23:56:30 GMT

What is the function of vitamin D?

Vitamin D, also known as calciferol, is a fat-soluble vitamin. However, inside the body it has acts more like a hormone. It influences more than 2,000 genes in your body. So, it literally has thousands of health benefits!

The major function of vitamin D is to maintain normal blood levels of calcium and phosphorus. It aids in the absorption of calcium, helping to form and maintain strong bones. Without vitamin D, bones can become thin, brittle, soft, or misshapen. Severe vitamin D deficiency is knownas rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults. These are skeletal diseases that result in defects that weaken bones.

There are two main forms of vitamin D:
1) Vitamin D3, also known as cholecalciferol. This form is produced in the skin when exposed to UVB radiation.
2) Vitamin D2, also known as ergocalciferol. This form is available to U.S. docorts in prescription strength and is sometimes used in multivitamin preparations- usually at 400 IU/pill. It is important to note that this form does not exist in detectable quantities in the human body. It only exists in small quantities in plants; however you can not get apprciable ergocalciferol by eating vegetables. It is metabolized to various substances in the body, some of which are not considered natural, and some of which have been shown to be dangerous.

Health conditions affected by vitamin D

Bone Health

According to the National Institutes of Health, it is estimated that over 25 million adults in the United States have, or are at risk of, developing osteoporosis each year. Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by fragile bones and can result in increased risk of bone fractures. Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with greater incidence of fractures, especially of the hip (1). Studies have shown that adequate dosage of vitamin D is necessary to decrease the risk of falls. The recommend 400 IU of vitamin D is not enough. According to a meta-analysis, doses of 700-1000 IU were shown to reduce the risk of falling by 20% (2).

Without vitamin D, only about 10-15% of dietary calcium and around 60% of phosphorus is absorbed by the body, which has direct and detrimental effects on bone health and muscle strength in adults and skeletal problems in children (3).

Obesity

Recently, evidence has suggested that obesity is associated with lower vitamin D status (4,5). Since vitamin D is fat-soluble, it can be taken into fat cells and stored. This makes it less available to our body. On the other hand, overweight/obesity may be the consequence of poor vitamin D status. It is suggested that this is likely due to the increase in PTH, which enhances fat metabolism and promotes weight gain (6).

Cancer

It is well established that vitamin D also acts as a regulator of cell growth in a number of cells, including cancer cells. Thus, evidence has suggested that vitamin D may be protective against some cancers, particularly, breast, prostate, colon, and skin, which are considered the four most common cancers.

Prostate Cancer. Vitamin D can not only be used as a therapy for prostate cancer, but it can prevent prostate cancer from happening (7). When normal healthy prostate cells and prostate cancer cells were subjected to oxidative stress, blood vitamin D increased G6PD, a key antioxidant enzyme, in the healthy cells, but not the cancer cells. G6PD scavenges reactive oxygen species, which are associated with DNA damage. Reducing DNA damage reduces the risk of cancer and aging.
Breast Cancer. Higher vitamin D levels from exposure to sunlight may reduce the incidence of breast cancer (8). This study collected data on cancer from 107 countries. Researchers found that higher blood levels of vitamin D and living closer to the equator were associated with lower breast cancer incidence. However, although ultraviolet B radiation is the primary source of vitamin D, unprotected sun exposure is not the recommended way to reduce a person’s risk of developing breast cancer. Vitamin D can be obtained more safely through fortified foods and dietary supplements.
 Death from cancer may also be increased with low levels of vitamin D. In the Ludwigshafen Risk and Cardiovascular Health study, death from fatal cancer was reduced by 55% amongst people with higher vitamin D levels (9).
Cardiovascular Disease

Low levels of vitamin D could increase the risk of cardiovascular events, like a heart attack, heart failure, or stroke by 62% (10). In addition, those with low vitamin D levels plus high blood pressure (>140/90), had an even greater risk of cardiovascular risk. They had a 113% increased risk than those with normal blood pressure and higher vitamin D levels.

Another study found that individuals with low levels of vitamin D are more than twice as likely to die from cardiovascular disease as those with high levels (11). Participants of the study involved 3,258 participants that were scheduled for a coronary angiography testing. When the researches followed up the participants 7.7 years later, 737 of the participants had died (463 from cardiovascular causes). The lowest average vitamin D levels were associated with a 108% increase in risk of death compared to the highest average vitamin D levels.

Immunity

Autoimmune diseases. Our immune cells have receptors for vitamin D. This is important because autoimmune disease, including multiple sclerosis, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, irritable bowel disease (Crohn’s and ulcerative colitis), have a T-cell component of inflammation.
o Periodontal disease, a chronic inflammatory gum disease, is common in those over 50. A study in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, found that a lack of vitamin D significantly increased risk of periodontal disease (12).
o Diabetes, particularly type 1 diabetes, is also associated with vitamin D deficiency. Children in Finland who received 2,000 IU of vitamin D/day through dietary supplements were shown to have an 80% decreased risk of type 1 diabetes mellitus; while those deficient in vitamin D were found to have a 4-fold increased risk of developing type 1 diabetes (13).
Common cold and flu. Increased levels of vitamin D have been suggested to protect against common respiratory infections, such as the cold and flu. According to findings from a study with about 19,000 adults and adolescents, individuals with the lowest average levels of vitamin D were about 40% more likely to have a recent respiratory infection, compared to those with higher vitamin D levels (14).
Another study found that vitamin D status enhances your immunity to microbial infections. Participants with vitamin D deficiency had significantly more days of absence from work due to respiratory infection than did control subjects (15). While this does not mean that higher vitamin D intake will ensure that one does not develop an upper respiratory tract infection, it demonstrates the critical role vitamin D plays in immunity.

Depression

Higher intake of vitamin D may improve one’s mood and protect against depression. In a study by Witte Hoogendijk, et al, they found that low levels of vitamin D and higher blood levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH) were associated with higher rates of depression among 1,282 individuals between the ages of 65-95 (16). In this study, they measured vitamin D and PTH blood levels in volunteers with either a major depressive disorder (n=26), minor depression (n=169), or no depression (n=1,087). Amongst those with major and minor depress, blood vitamin D levels were 14% lower, and PTH levels were, 5-33% higher compared to non-depressed individuals.

How much vitamin D is recommended?...needed?

The current recommendation for vitamin D is 200 IU/day for children and adults up to 50 yrs of age, 400 IU/day for adults 50-70 years old, and 600 IU/day for those older than 70. However, these amounts were established in 1997, and it is estimated that about 1 billion people are vitamin D deficient (18). Over the past decade, over 3,000 research studies involving vitamin D have been published, many of which suggest that significantly higher levels of vitamin D are necessary for most people.

Groups of most concern include:
1) Residents in the Pacific Northwest or New England in the United States
2) Obese persons
3) Persons getting very little sunlight due to indoor jobs or personal habits, including constant use of sunscreen
4) Persons with naturally darker skin

Individuals in the above groups are likely to require at least 1,000 IU/day in order to decrease the risk of conditions mentioned above (17,18) .

Food Sources

According to the World’s Healthiest Foods…

Excellent sources of vitamin D include: Salmon
Very good sources include: shrimp and vitamin-D fortified milk
Good sources include: cod and eggs

However, you can not obtain these amounts from dietary sources, alone, unless you eat oily fish frequently. Sensible sun exposure (or UVB irradiation) and/or supplements are necessary to satisfy the body’s vitamin D requirement

Dietary Supplements

There are 2 forms of vitamin D used in supplements: vitamin D2 and vitamin D3. Vitamin D2 can be plant-derived, so it is usually considered a vegetarian source. Vitamin D3 is obtained from animal or microbial sources. Some studies have reported that vitamin D2 is 30-50% less effective as D3 in maintaining adequate blood levels in humans; however Dr. Michael Holick found that they were equally as effective (18).

References

1) T. Lindner, N.K. Kanakaris, B. Marx, A. Cockbainm G. Kontakis, P.V. Giannoudis. Fractures of the hip and osteoporosis: the role of bone substitutes. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2009 Mar; 91(3):294-303.
2) H.A. Bischoff-Ferrari, B. Dawson-Hughes, H.B. Staehelin, J.E. Orav, A.E. Stuck, R. Theiler, J.B. Wong, A. Egli, D.P. Kiel, J. Henschkowski. Fall prevention with supplemental and active forms of vitamin D: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. British Medical Journal.
3) M.F. Holick, R.M. Biancuzzo, T.C. Chen, E.K. Klein, A. Young, D. Bibuld, R. Reitz, W. Salameh, A. Ameri, and A.D. Tannenbaum. Vitamin D2 is as effective as vitamin D3 in maintaining circulating concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, Dec 2007.
4) McCarty MF, Thomas CA. PTH excess may promote weight gain by impeding catecholamine-induced lipolysis-implications for the impact of calcium, vitamin D, and alcohol on body weight. Med Hypotheses, 2003 61:535–542
5) Valina-Toth AL, Lai Z, Yoo W, Abou-Smra A, Gadegbeku, CA, Flack JM. Relationship of vitamin D and parathyroid hormone to obesity and body composition in African Americans. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology, 2009, July 28.
6) B. Marieke, R. Snijder, M. van Dam, M. Visser, J. Dorly, J. Deeg, L. Bouter, C. Jaap, and P Lips. Adiposity in relation to vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone levels: a population-based study in older men and women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology, 2005, 7(9); 4119-4123.
7) B.-Y. Bao, H.-J. Ting, J.-W. Hsu, Y.-F. Protective role of 1a, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 against oxidative stress in nonmalignant human prostate epithelial cells. The International Journal of Cancer, 2008; 122, 2699-2706.
8) S.B. Mohr, C.F. Garland, E.D. Gorham, W.B. Grant, F.C. Garland. Relationship between low ultraviolet B irradiance and higher breast cancer risk in 107 countries. The Breast Journal, May/June 2008, volume 14, Issue 3, pages 255-260
9) S. Pilz, H. Dobnig, B. Winklhofer-Roob, G. Riedmuller, J.E. Fischer, U. Seelhorst, B. Wellnitz, B.O. Boehm, W. Marz. Low serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D predict fatal cancer in patients referred to coronary angiogarpy. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers, & Prevention, 2008, volume 17, number 5, pages 1228-1233.
10) T.J. Wang, M.J. Pencina, S.L. Booth, P.F. Jacques, E. Ingelsson, K. Lanier, E.J. Benjamin, R.B. D’Agostino, M. Wolf, R.S. Vasan. Vitamin D deficiency and risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation, Jan 2008.
11) H. Dobnig, S. Pilz, H. Scharnagl, W. Renner, U. Seelhorst, B. Wellnitz, J. Kinkeldei, B.O. Boehm, G. Weihrauch, W. Maerz. Independent association of low serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Archives of Internal Medicine, 168, 12, 1340-1349.
12) Dietrich T, Joshipura KJ, Dawson-Hughes B, Bischoff-Ferrari HA. Association between serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and periodontal disease in the US population. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Jul;80(1):108-13. 2004. PMID:15213036.
13) E. Hypponen, E. Laara, A. Reunanen, M.R. Jarvelin, Virtanen, S.M. Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study. Lancet, 2001, Nov 3; 358(9292): 1500-1503.
14) A. Ginde, J. Mansbach, and C. Camargo. Association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level and upper respiratory tract infection in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Archives of Internal Medicine, 2009, volume 169, issue 4, pages 384-390.
15) Laaksi I, Ruohola JP, Tuohimaa P, Auvinen A, Haataja R, Pihlajamaki H, Ylikomi T. An association of serum vitamin D concentrations <40 nmol/L with acute respiratory tract infection in young Finnish men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2007, 86(3):714-717.
16) W.J. Hoogendijk, P. Lips, M.G. Dik, D.J. Deeg, A.T. Beekman, B.W. Pennix. Depression is associated with decreased 25-hydroxyvitamin D and increased parathyroid hormone levels in older adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, May 2008, volume 65, number 5.
17) H.A. Bischoff-Ferrari, E. Giovannucci, W.C. Willet, T. Dietrich, B. Dawson-Hughes. Estimation of optimal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for multiple health outcomes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006 Jul;84(1):18-28. 2006
18) New England Journal of Medicine July 19, 2007, Volume 357, Number 3, Pages 266-281 "Vitamin D Deficiency" Author: M.F. Holick

Vitamin C

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Sun, 04 Oct 2009 22:55:00 GMT

Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble nutrient that is easily excreted from the body when not needed. Almost all mammals can make it; however, humans, gorillas, chimps, bats, guinea pigs and birds are some of the few animals that cannot make vitamin C inside of their own bodies.

The requirement from vitamin C varies greatly from person to person. One person may require 10 times as much vitamin C as another person depending on their age and health status. In addition, the amount of vitamin C found in food also varies. In general, an unripe food is much lower in vitamin C than a ripe one, but provided that the food is ripe, the vitamin C content is higher when the food is younger at the time of harvest. So, as you can see there is difficulty in determining adequate vitamin C necessary to support health and prevent diseases.

What is the function of Vitamin C?

Vitamin C serves predominantly as a protective role in the body. Without vitamin C, we cannot form new collage, the main protein in connective tissue of tendons, ligaments, bone, and even in blood vessels. Along with protecting our skin and gums, vitamin C is necessary to protect against cardiovascular diseases, cancers, joint diseases, cataracts, and more.

Vitamin C also plays an important role in the synthesis of the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine. This is critical to brain function and mood. In addition, vitamin C is required for the synthesis of carnitine, a molecule that is essential for the transport of fat to mitochondria for the conversion of energy.

Vitamin C is a highly effective antioxidant. Vitamin C can protect proteins, lipids (fats), carbohydrates, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) from damage by free radicals and reactive oxygen species that is generated during normal metabolism and highly generated from the exposure to toxins and pollutants (i.e. smoking).

Vitamin C and the Immune System

A lot of controversy exists over whether vitamin C protects against colds. A meta-analysis of 30 placebo-controlled prevention trials found that vitamin C supplementation in doses up to 2g/day did not decrease the incidence of colds (1). However, in a subgroup of marathon runners, skiers, and soldiers training in the Arctic, doses ranging from 250 mg/day to 1 g/day decreased the incidence of colds by 50%. When treatment with vitamin C supplementation is started at the onset of symptoms, it did not shorten the duration of colds. More importantly, vitamin C is very important for the immune system. When you have an infection, your lymphocytes kick in to defend the body. These lymphocytes use a ton of vitamin C. Thus, you need Vitamin C for the “cleanup crew” to do their job properly.

Vitamin C and Disease Prevention & Treatment

From asthma to high blood pressure, cancer to rheumatoid arthritis, vitamin C is a nutrient that is needed everywhere and all the time. This powerhouse vitamin is required for at least 300 metabolic functions in the body! It is one of the most powerful antioxidants on the planet. Oxidation is a kind of cellular aging that takes place inside our body all the time. Increased oxidation is associated with many diseases and conditions, and vitamin C plays a critical role in the prevention and treatment of them.

Cardiovascular disease

Vitamin C plays an important role in heart health. It prevents oxidation of LDL (bad) cholesterol. Cholesterol really isn’t a problem until it gets oxidized. Thus, by helping prevent this, vitamin C helps prevent problems that might be related to cholesterol. Results from the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Study (NHANES I) indicate that the risk of death from cardiovascular disease was 42% lower in men and 25% lower in women who consumed more than 50 mg/day or dietary vitamin C and who regularly took vitamin C supplements, corresponding to around 300 mg/day (2). In addition, results from the Nurses’ Health Study, which was based on the follow-up of more than 85,000 women over 16 years also suggest that high vitamin C intake my be protective of cardiovascular disease (3). The maximum reduction of coronary heart disease occurs when vitamin C intake is high enough to saturate plasma and circulating cells (4). Data from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) suggests that a dose of 400 mg/day is enough to do that (5); however in another study subjects taking the most vitamin C, had a stunning 80% lower risk of heart attack than those taking the least amount of vitamin C.

Not only does vitamin C decrease risk of heart attacks, it also reduces damage following one. In the Myocardial Infarction and Vitamins Trial (MVIT) researchers found that patients who suffered an acute heart attack and then supplemented with 1,200 mg of vitamin C (along with 600 mg of vitamin E) for 1 month ad a significantly lower rates of complications from the acute heart attack. Patients in the supplemental group also suffered fewer additional heart attacks, and few people in that group diet compared to the other group (6).

Cancer

A large number of studies have shown that increased consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables is associated with a reduced risk of most types of cancer (7). Prospective studies, which are given more weight when determining the effect of a nutrient on disease, have indicated a significant cancer risk reduction when people are consuming at least 80-110 mg of vitamin C, daily (8). In addition, a number of observational studies have found increased dietary vitamin C intake to be associated with decreased risk of stomach cancer (9), likely due to it’s role in inhibiting the formation of carcinogenic compounds in the stomach. Along with stomach cancer, caners of the mouth, throat, vocal cords, esophagus, colon-rectum, lung, and breast have all been shown to be positively affected by adequate vitamin C intake. For more information about the role of vitamin C in cancer risk reduction reference information by Linus Pauling, a two-time Nobel Prize winner, who was personally able to control his own disease, Bright’s disease, using diet, vitamins, and minerals (10).

Asthma and Allergy

Because vitamin C is a major antioxidant in the lungs, it plays a critical role in protecting against oxidation damage that increases risk for asthma. A 2005 study done by researchers from Asthma and Allergy Research Institute in Australia found that the blood concentrations of vitamin C were markedly lower in patients with severe asthma compared to those who had mild asthma or those without asthma (11). In fact, individuals with asthma have a higher need for vitamin C than do members of the general population. One to two grams of vitamin C have been shown to be most helpful. This level is also helpful for those suffering from allergies or excess production of histamine.

Vitamin C and Longevity

Two major studies have associated vitamin C status with longevity. In one study of more than 19,000 adults, those with the lowest blood levels of vitamin C were twice as likely to die over the next four years than those with the highest levels (12). In addition, a decade-long study from UCLA of more than 11,000 people found that men who took 800 mg of vitamin C daily lived about 6 years longer than those who took only 60 mg (13). Lastly, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), an ongoing research project that looks at the nutrition habits as they relate to health outcome in a large population, found that males with the highest vitamin C intake had a .65 mortality ratio from all cases and .78 from cancer, when using the standard mortality ratio tool with 1.0 as the reference.

Food Sources

Vitamin C is found in virtually anything that grows. Berries, citrus fruits, kiwis, green vegetables, especially broccoli, cabbage, peppers, potatoes, and Brussels sprouts, are all excellent sources of vitamin C. Vitamin C content is reduces when vegetables are cut and left standing, sometimes in less than 3 hours. Frozen is up there with fresh, but canned fruits and vegetables lose a lot of the vitamin C content. The top 5 foods are: acerola, red chile peppers, guavas, red bell peppers, and kale. Below is a list of other good sources.

Food	Serving	Vitamin C (mg)
Orange juice	¾ cup (6 ounces)	75
Grapefruit juice	¾ cup (6 ounces)	60
Orange	1 medium	70
Grapefruit	½ medium	44
Strawberries	1 cup, whole	82
Tomato	1 medium	23
Sweet red pepper	½ cup, raw chopped	141
Broccoli	½ cup, cooked	58
Potato	1 medium, baked	26

Supplemental Vitamin C

Vitamin C is available in many forms, but there is little scientific evidence that any one form is better absorbed or more effective than another. Natural and synthetic L-ascorbic acid are chemically identical and there are no known differences in their biological activities or bioavailability. Plain old ascorbic acid is a sufficient, effective form. There is no need to buy an esterized for (i.e. Ester-C). Bioflavonoids like quercetin and hesperidin also enhance vitamin C’s effectiveness. Taking vitamin C with vtiamin E and beta carotene also enhances it’s effectiveness. High doses of vitamin C can cause diarrhea, but that just meants that you need to reduce your does to 75% of the amount that gave you loose stools. Start out with 500 mg/day and work up to 1-2 g, if tolerable.

References

1) Douglas RM, Hemila H, D'Souza R, Chalker EB, Treacy B. Vitamin C for preventing and treating the common cold. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004(4):CD000980

2) Enstrom JE, Kanim LE, Klein MA. Vitamin C intake and mortality among a sample of the United States population. Epidemiology. 1992;3(3):194-202

3) Osganian SK, Stampfer MJ, Rimm E, et al. Vitamin C and risk of coronary heart disease in women. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(2):246-252

4) Frei B. To C or not to C, that is the question! J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(2):253-255.

5) Levine M, Wang Y, Padayatty SJ, Morrow J. A new recommended dietary allowance of vitamin C for healthy young women. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001;98(17):9842-9846.

6) Bonaa KH, Njolstad I, Ueland PM, Schirmer H, Tverdal A, Steigen T, Wang H, Nordrehaug JE, Arnesen E, Rasmussen K; NORVIT Trial Investigators. Homocysteine lowering and cardiovascular events after acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2006 Apr 13;354(15):1578-88. Epub 2006 Mar 12.

7) Steinmetz KA, Potter JD. Vegetables, fruit, and cancer prevention: a review. J Am Diet Assoc. 1996;96(10):1027-1039

8) Carr AC, Frei B. Toward a new recommended dietary allowance for vitamin C based on antioxidant and health effects in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69(6):1086-1107

9) Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Vitamin C. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington D.C.: National Academy Press; 2000:95-185

10) http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminC/

11) Misso NA, Brooks-Wildhaber J, Ray S, Vally H, Thompson PJ. Plasma concentrations of dietary and nondietary antioxidants are low in severe asthma. Eur Respir J 2005; 26:257-264

12) Khaw KT, Bingham S, Welch A, et al. Relation between plasma ascorbic acid and mortality in men and women in EPIC-Norfolk prospective study: a prospective population study. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Lancet. 2001 Mar 3;357(9257):657-63.

13) Enstrom JE, Kanim LE, Klein MA. Vitamin C intake and mortality among a sample of the United States population. Epidemiology. 1992 May;3(3):194-202

Need a Meal on the Go? Try FastFuel Complete!

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Tue, 29 Sep 2009 19:04:20 GMT

If you’re always on the go, we know it can be easy to neglect nutrition by resorting to unhealthy meals or snacks.

To help you find the right nutrition when you need a quick meal, we’re excited to offer FastFuel Complete meal replacement powder.

Packed with 30 grams of protein, SunFiber®, 30mg of digestive enzymes and other vitamins and minerals, FastFuel Complete has all the nutrients your body needs in a chocolate or vanilla-flavored 230-calorie drink.

In addition to finding the meal replacement powder at Life Café, you can also purchase FastFuel Complete at the Life Time Fitness online store. Alternatively, you can save 10 percent off FastFuel Complete if you purchase FastFuel Complete through a Life Time Fitness personal trainer or nutrition coach.

Not sure if a meal replacement powder like FastFuel Complete is right for you? Check out The Power of Meal Replacements or connect with a Life Time Fitness nutrition coach or personal trainer.

Healthy Recipe of the Week: Quinoa, Black Beans & Mango Salad with Smoky Dressing

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Tue, 29 Sep 2009 14:12:40 GMT

Download the recipe for Janize Guzman's healthy, quinoa, black beans and mango salad creation by downloading the PDF file below. Guzman is a Life Time Fitness member from Cinco Ranch, TX.

Healthy Recipe of the Week: Tuscan Bean Salad

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Thu, 24 Sep 2009 19:50:10 GMT

Download the recipe for Sandra Jouhet's healthy, tuscan bean salad creation by downloading the PDF file below. Jouhet is a Life Time Fitness member from Rochester Hills, MI.

Copper

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Sun, 27 Sep 2009 19:35:37 GMT

What is the function of copper?

Copper plays a role in a wide range of physiological processes. It is an essential component of several enzymes, all of which have distinct functions. Some of the top function are described below.

Iron Utilization

Around 90% of copper in the blood is used in a compound called ceruloplasmin. Ceruloplasmin is a transport protein responsible for carrying copper to tissues that need the mineral. In addition transportation, ceruloplasmin activates the oxidation of iron. The oxidation of iron by ceruloplasmin is necessary for iron to bind to its transport protein (called transferrin) so that it can be carried to tissues where it is needed. Because copper is necessary for the utilization of iron, iron deficiency anemias may be a symptom of copper deficiency.

Elimination of Free Radicals

Copper is necessary for an enzyme called superoxide dismutase (SOD) to catalyzes the removal of superoxide radicals from the body. Superoxide radicals are generated during normal metabolism, as well as when white blood cells attack invading bacteria and viruses. If these radicals are not eliminated quickly, they can cause damage to cell membranes. When copper is not present in sufficient quantities, superoxide dismutase can't function properly, and the damage to cell membranes is increased.

Development of Bone & Connective Tissue

Copper is also a component enzymes that participate in the synthesis of collagen and elastin convert tyrosine to melanin, which is the pigment that gives hair and skin its color.

Copper deficiency

Symptoms:

Because copper is involved in many functions of the body, copper deficiency produces a wide-range of symptoms. These symptoms include iron deficiency anemia, ruptured blood vessels, osteoporosis, joint problems, brain disturbances, elevated LDL cholesterol and reduced HDL cholesterol levels, increased susceptibility to infections due to poor immune function, loss of pigment in the hair and skin, weakness, fatigue, breathing difficulties, skin sores, poor thyroid function, and irregular heart beat.

Most Americans consume less than recommended amounts of copper in their diet; however, symptoms of copper deficiency are relatively rare. Additionally, certain medical conditions including chronic diarrhea, celiac sprue, and Crohn's disease result in decreased absorption of copper and may increase the risk of developing a copper deficiency. Certain medications, such as antacids, may also increase your ris of developing copper deficiency since copper requires a sufficient stomach acid for absorption. Inadequate copper status is also observed in children with low protein intake and in infants fed only cow's milk without supplemental copper.

Causes:

1) Compromise stomach acid: Unlike most minerals, copper is absorbed into the body from the stomach, and proper levels of stomach acid are important for this absorption.

2) High zinc supplementation: because zinc can compete with copper in the small intestine and interfere with its absorption, persons who supplement with inappropriately high levels of zinc and lower levels of copper may increase their risk of copper deficiency.

3) Certain medications may decrease copper levels in the blood

AZT (Azidothymidine, Zidovudine, Retrovir) is used in the treatment of HIV infection and AIDS. AZT may reduce blood levels of copper.
Famotidine (Pepcid, Pepcid AD) and Nizatidine (Axid, Axid AR) belong to the class of drugs known as histamine blockers, which prevent the release of acid into the stomach and are used in the treatment of ulcers and acid indigestions. Because copper requires sufficient stomach acid for absorption, long-term use of famotidine may lead to copper deficiency.
Antacids (for example, Tums) may reduce copper absorption by decreasing the amount of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
Penicillamine (Cuprimine, Depen) is a chelating agent used to reduce toxic copper deposits in people with Wilson's disease.

What about copper toxicity?

Recent research, suggests that copper toxicity may be more of a problem dur to the amount of copper found in drinking water when we switched from galvanized water pipes to copper water pipes. Excessive intake of copper can cause abdominal pain and cramps, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, and liver damage. In addition, some experts believe that elevated copper levels, especially when zinc levels are also low, may be a contributing factor in many medical conditions including schizophrenia, hypertension, stuttering, autism, fatigue, muscle and joint pain, headaches, childhood hyperactivity, depression, insomnia, senility, and premenstrual syndrome.

Postpartum depression has also been linked to high levels of copper. This is because copper concentrations increase throughout pregnancy to approximately twice normal values, and it may take up to three months after delivery for copper concentrations to normalize. Since excess copper is excreted through bile, copper toxicity is most likely to occur in individuals with liver disease or other medical conditions in which the excretion of bile is compromised.

The toxic effects of high tissue levels of copper are seen in patients with Wilson's disease, a genetic disorder characterized by copper accumulation in various organs due to the inadequate synthesis of ceruloplasmin (the protein that transports copper through the blood) by the liver.

Supplemental Copper

Copper may play a role in the prevention and/or treatment of the following health conditions:

Allergies
Anemia
Baldness
Bedsores
Heart Disease
HIV/AIDS
Hypothyroid disease
Leukemia
Osteoporosis
Periodontal disease
Rheumatoid arthritis
Stomach ulcers

Form in Dietary Supplements

Copper is primarily found in complex with organic acids like picolinic acid and gluconic acid, and amino acids like glycine and lysine. Inorganic forms of copper, like copper sulfate, are also available. All of these delivery forms have benefits, and the choice of a specific copper supplement often depends on the need for amino acids or organic acids.

How much?

In 2000, the Institute of Medicine at the National Academy of Sciences established the following Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs)for copper:

0-12 months: not possible to establish a TUL, sources of copper must be from food and formula only
1-3 years: 1000 micrograms
4-8 years: 1000 micrograms
9-13 years: 5000 micrograms
14-18 years: 8000 micrograms
19 years and older: 10,000 micrograms
Pregnant women 14-18 years: 8000 micrograms
Pregnant women 19 years and older: 10,000 micrograms
Lactating women 14-18 years: 8000 micrograms
Lactating women 19 years and older: 10,000 micrograms

A safe and adequate amount of copper to be found in multivitamin and mineral supplements is ~3000 micrograms (or 3 mg) per day.

Food Sources

According to the World's Healthiest Foods...

Excellent sources include:

1) Calf's liver

2) Crimini mushrooms

3) Turnip greens

4) Molasses

Very good sources include:

1) Chard

2) Spinach

3) Sesame seeds

4) Mustard greens

5) Kale

6) Summer squash

7) Asparagus

8) Eggplant

9) Cashews

Good sources include:

1) Peppermint

2) Tomatoes

3) Sunflower seeds

4) Ginger

5) Green beans

6) Potato

7) Tempeh

Chromium

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Sun, 20 Sep 2009 23:32:02 GMT

What is the function of chromium?

Carbohydrate Metabolism/Blood Sugar Control:

Chromium is an essential mineral that plays a key role in carbohydrate metabolism. It works with insulin to regulate blood sugar levels in the blood. Chromium helps insulin bind to its receptors on the membrane of cells, which then allows sugar to move into the cell where it is used to produce energy.

Fat Metabolism

Chromium is also important for fat metabolism and the regulation of cholesterol. Chromium inhibits the synthesis of new fat from carbohydrates, thus freeing the mitochondria to burn already stored fat.

Weight Control?

Stable blood sugar often translates to fewer bouts of hunger, which in turn leads to eating less and losing weight. However, chromium is only a small part of the puzzle in the control of weight loss and body composition. Its effects, if present, will be small compared with those of exercise and a well-balanced diet.

Blood Lipid Control

In addition to controlling blood glucose and insulin, supplemental chromium has been shown to improve blood lipid levels. Improvements are usually greatest when blood lipids are highest, and changes may take several months to appear (1,2).

Chromium Deficiency

Chromium deficiency is believed to be widespread in the United States, as a result of food processing methods that remove most of the naturally occurring chromium. Chromium deficiency was first documented when a patient on total parentaeral nutrition (TPN) developed severe diabetic-like symptoms that were unmanageable with insulin (3). She was losing weight, accompanied by glucose intolerance and neuropathy, symptoms that would not resolve even with high dosage of insulin. When 200 micrograms of chromium was added to her TPN solution for 3 weeks, her symptoms were alleviated and insulin was no longer required.

Symptoms of chromium deficiency, including elevated blood glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, and triglyceride, can resemble those of prediabetes and the Metabolic Syndrome.* This doesn't mean that a lack of chromium alone causes diabetes, but low chromium intake likely contributes to diabetes.

*Metabolic Syndrome is a group of conditions that puts one at risk for heart disease and diabetes. The conditions include: high blood pressure, high blood sugar levels, high triglycerides, low HDL-cholesterol (the good cholesterol), and excess fat around waist.

Chromium Supplementation

Beneficial effects of chromium are not limited to patients on TPN.Children, the elderly, people with Type 1 and 2 diabetes, as well as those with low blood sugar, have all been shownto display positive effects in response to supplemental chromium (1,4). Chromium supplementation has also been shown to help in the treatment of gestational diabetes . In a study by Jovanovic-Peterson, et al (5), women with gestationaldiabetes displayed improved glucose tolerance and decreases in hyperinsulinemia when given a high dose (8 µg per kg body weightof Cr as Cr picolinate).

Forms of Supplemental Chromium

As a dietary supplement, chromium is available as chromium picolinate, chromium polynicotinate, chromium chloride, and chromium-enriched yeast. There is substantial debate about the preferred delivery form. Research studies have shown chromium picolinate are better absorbed and have more positive effects (6). However, some studies have suggested possible DNA damage with long-term use of chromium picolinate (7,8). These effects were not noted with niacin-bound chromium (chromium polynicotinate and chromium nicotinate, sold as ChromeMAate) a supplementation. Thus, niacin-bound chromium may be a safer, and effective, form of chromium supplementation.

Recommended Intake & Supplemental Chromium Dose

The estimated safe and adequate daily dietary intake (ESADDI)of chromium is 50-200 mcg for children 7 years to adult. The normal dietary chromium intake for adults is also below the minimumestimated of 50 mcg (9). Not only is the amountof chromium consumed daily important, but specific foods may negativelyaffect Cr status as well. For example, foods high in simplesugars are not only low in chromium, but also enhance chromium losses.Chromium intakes of 30 mcg to 40 mcg per day wouldlikely be adequate if well balanced diets low in simple sugarsand high in fresh fruits and vegetables were consumed.

When using chromium to help with diabetes, 200 mcg is not sufficient to elicit a positive response. The studies that report positive effects of supplemental chromium on people with diabetes usually involved 400 mcg or more of chromium (10,11,12).

Food Sources

Chromium occurs naturally in a wide variety of foods; however, many foods contain only 1-2 mcg of chromium/serving. As mentioned above, food processing methods often remove the naturally occurring chromium. Thus, obtaining sufficient amount of chromium in the diet can be difficult. Determining the chromium content of foods is problematic due to inadequate analytical tools. Consequently, current food composition databases do not contain accurate information about the amount of chromium in foods.

According to the World’s Healthiest Foods’ food rating system, an excellent source of chromium is believed to be romaine lettuce. Very good sources include onions and tomatoes, and good sources include: brewer's yeast, oysters, liver, whole grains, bran cereals, and potatoes.

References

1) Anderson RA: Chromium, glucose tolerance, diabetes and lipid metabolism. J Adv Med 8: 37–49, 19951

2) Abraham AS, Brooks BA, Eylath U: The effects of chromium supplementation on serum glucose and lipids in patients with and without non-insulin-dependent diabetes. Metabolism 41: 768–771, 19922).#

3) Jeejeebhoy KN, Chu RC, Marliss EB, Greenberg GR, Bruce-Robertson A: Chromium deficiency, glucose intolerance, and neuropathy reversed by chromium supplementation in a patient receiving long-term total parenteral nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 30: 531–538, 1977.

3) Wilson BE, Gondy A: Effect of chromium supplementation on fasting insulin levels and lipid parameters in healthy, non-obese young subjects. Diabetes Res Clin Prac 28: 179–184, 1995

4) Jovanovic-Peterson L, Gutierry M, Peterson CM: Chromium supplementation for gestational diabetic women (GDM) improves glucose tolerance and decreases hyperinsulinemia. Diabetes 43: 337a, 1996.#

5) Anderson, RA. Chromium, glucose intolerance, and diabetes. Journal of American College of Nutrition 17:6; 548-555, 1998.

6) Anderson RA, Kozlovsky AS: Chromium intake, absorption and excretion of subjects consuming self-selected diets. Am J Clin Nutr 41: 1177–1183, 1985

7) Blasiak J, Kowalik J. A comparison of the in vitro genotoxicity of tri- and hexavalent chromium. Mutat Res. 2000;469(1):135-145.

8) Speetjens JK, Collins RA, Vincent JB, Woski SA. The nutritional supplement chromium(III) tris(picolinate) cleaves DNA. Chem Res Toxicol. 1999;12(6):483-487.

9) Mossop RT: Effects of chromium (III) on fasting glucose, cholesterol and cholesterol HDL levels in diabetics. Cent Afr J Med 29: 80–82, 1983.#

10) Nath R, Minocha J, Lyall V, Sunder S, Kumar V, Kapoor S, Dhar KL: Assessment of chromium metabolism in maturity onset and juvenile diabetes using chromium-51 and therapeutic response of chromium administration on plasma lipids, glucose tolerance and insulin levels.

11) Shapcott D, Hubert J (eds): "Chromium in Nutrition and Metabolism." Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland, pp 213–222, 1979.#

12) Glinsmann W, Mertz W: Effect of trivalent chromium on glucose tolerance. Metabolism 15: 510–520, 1966.

Healthy Recipe of the Week: Heidi's Grilled Chicken BBQ Pepper Pizza

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Tue, 15 Sep 2009 14:08:41 GMT

Download the recipe for Heidi Foote's healthy, grilled chicken barbeque pepper pizza creation by dowloading the PDF file below. Foote is a Life Time Fitness member from Palm Valley, AZ.

Endurance Sports Nutrition Resources

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Wed, 29 Jul 2009 03:10:58 GMT

Fuel to Finish Endurance Events

Drink Early, Drink Often

The Road to Recovery

Recognizing the Female Athlete Triad- Part 1

Choline

gfelder@lifetimefitness.com — Mon, 14 Sep 2009 15:37:36 GMT

What is Choline?

Choline is the newest official member of the B vitamin family. Choline was discovered back in the 1930s when scientists discovered that tissue from the pancreas contains a substance that helps prevent fatty build-up in the liver. This substance was named choline after the Greek word for chole, which means bile. Choline has a fat-modifying effect in the membranes of our cells, which allows our cells to operate with greater flexibility in handling both water- and fat-soluble molecules. Without choline, many fat-based nutrients could not pass in and out of our cells.

What is the function of choline?

Brain Health

Choline is a component of fat-like molecules in the brain that are responsible for brain function and health. Pregnancy and lactation are periods when maternal reserves of choline are depleted. Thus, the availability of choline for normal development of the brain is critical. Research on rats has shown that when rats are given choline halfway through pregnancy, there results in a permanent mark on fetal brain development, essentially building an “excess memory capacity” that they endure throughout life (1,2).

Support of Methyl Group Metabolism

Choline has a unique chemical structure. It is trimethylated, which means that it contains three hydrogen atoms and one methyl group. Many important chemical events in the body are made possible by the transfer of methyl groups from one place to another. For example, methionine can be formed from homocysteine using methyl groups. When we are deficient in choline, we use methyl groups from folate, thus increasing our requirement for folate.

Support of Nervous System Activity
Choline is a key component of acetylcholine, a messenger molecule found in the nervous system. Acetylcholine is the body's primary chemical means of sending messages between nerves and muscles. Because of its role in nerve-muscle function, choline (supplemented in the form of lecithin, or phosphatidylcholine), has been used experimentally to help improve neuromuscular function in Alzheimer's disease. Research has also shown that single doses of both choline and lecithin may enhance memory development in healthy individuals, especially those with poor memory performance.

Decrease Chronic Inflammation → Decreased Cardiovascular Risk

Choline and betaine work together to help remove homocysteine, which is involved in turning off genes involved in inflammation. People whose diets supplied the highest average intake of choline, and its metabolite betaine (found naturally in vegetables such as beets and spinach), have levels of inflammatory markers at least 20% lower than subjects with the lowest average intakes (3). Tip: Egg yolks are the richest source of choline, followed by soybeans. Spinach, beets and whole wheat products are primary sources of betaine (4).

Choline Deficiency

Symptoms:

One of the greatest concerns with choline deficiency is the increased risk of coronary heart disease and other cardiovascular problems. High homocysteine in the blood is associated with CHD and heart/circulatory problems. One factor that is contributed to high levels of homocysteine is choline deficiency since choline allows homocystein to be converted into other substance; thus preventing any build-up.

Mild choline deficiency can result in fatigue, insomnia, poor ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine, problems with memory, and nerve-muscle imbalances

Extreme choline deficiency can result in liver dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, impaired growth, abnormalities in bone formation, lack of red blood cell formation, infertility, respiratory distress in newborns, kidney failure, anemia, and high blood pressure.

Causes:

In addition to poor dietary intake of choline itself, poor intake of other nutrients can result in choline deficiency. These nutrients include vitamins B-3, folic acid, and the amino acid methionine.

Liver problems, including liver cirrhosis, are common contributing factors to choline deficiency. Finally, a variety of hospital procedures, including TPN feeding (total parenteral nutrition directly into the bloodstream), by-pass surgery, and kidney transplant are also direct triggers of choline deficiency.

Sources of Choline

Food Sources:

Food           Amount                   Food                  Amount
Eggs*          1 egg = 126 mg       Cauliflower         1 cup = 60.3 mg
Scallops      4 oz. = 90.8 mg       Shiitake              1 cup = 52.9 mg
Soybeans    1 cup = 87.3 mg      Swiss chard       1 cup = 50.2 mg
Collards       1 cup = 76.7 mg      Asparagus         1 cup = 47.0 mg
Broccoli       1 cup = 62.6 mg      Artichoke            1 artichoke = 44.0 mg

Supplements:

Lecithin (phosphatidylcholine), usually extracted in the commercial marketplace from soybean, is the most common form of supplemental choline. Although choline in many supplements is derived from soy, soy-free supplements are also available. Many of these contain choline in the form of choline bitartrate.

The lecithin form of choline may be better able to increase choline levels in the body, perhaps due to the lesser breakdown of lecithin by bacteria in the intestinal tract. This form of the supplement is usually obtained from soybeans.

References

1) Meck W, Williams C: Simultaneous temporal processing is sensitive to prenatal choline availability in mature and aged rats. Neuroreport 8:3045–3051, 1997.

2) Meck WH, Williams CL: Choline supplementation during prenatal development educes proactive interference in spatial memory. Dev Brain Res 118:51–59, 1999.

3) Detopoulou P, Panagiotakos DB, Antonopoulou S, Pitsavos C, Stefanadis C. Dietary choline and betaine intakes in relation to concentrations of inflammatory markers in healthy adults: the ATTICA study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Feb;87(2):424-30. 2008. PMID:18258634.

4) Olthof MR, van Vliet T, Boelsma E, Verhoef P. Low dose betaine supplementation leads to immediate and long term lowering of plasma homocysteine in healthy men and women. J Nutr. 2003 Dec;133(12):4135-8. 2003.